University of Illinois System

Appendix A

University of Illinois System Task Force on Sexual Misconduct Prevention & Response - Research Recommendations

The following recommendations reflect areas in which there is sufficient consensus in the research literature regarding best practices in the prevention of and response to sexual misconduct with a focus on sexual assault. Each recommendation below provides support for proposed actions across the seven domains identified in the task force report and many of the research recommendations support more than one domain, including: 1) Institutional Values; 2) Policy Changes; 3) Employment Practices; 4) Education and Training; 5) Investigations of Misconduct; 6) Evaluation of Impact; and 7) Organizational Structure to Foster Implementation. Please note that all research recommendations fall into multiple categories in the task force report—there is not one-to-one correspondence between the recommendation and a single domain or action.

All levels of the organizational environment (leadership, policy, procedure, practice) should communicate prohibition for sexual misconduct and support effective responses to sexual misconduct when it occurs.

Leadership, policies, procedures, and practice must align to encourage implementation of desired responses to sexual misconduct and clearly prohibit undesired behaviors among organizational members (Allen et al., 2007; Allen et al., 2012; McDonald, Charlesworth, & Graham, 2015; Campbell & Chinnery, 2018; Fitzgerald et al., 1997; Fitzgerald, Swan, & Fischer, 1995; Fitzgerald et al., 1999). For example, Fitzgerald and colleagues found that in settings where there is perceived organizational tolerance for sexual harassment, such harassment is more likely to occur.

It is essential to build a prevention infrastructure with attention to adequate staff, broad and repeated training, and trauma-informed approaches built into the institutional response.

Each campus in the University system should aim to build a prevention infrastructure with well trained staff, standardized training, and institutional prevention considerations. This infrastructure should employ (a) trauma-informed approaches (Conley & Griffith, 2016; McCauley & Casler, 2015); (b) be responsive to a wide variety of audiences and forms of violence; (c) create permanent staff positions to support implementation; and (d) create communities that focus on believing, healing, and prevention (Gondolf & Fisher, 1988; Catalano, 2006; Fisher et al., 2000; Fisher, Daigle, Cullen, & Turner, 2003; Ahrens, Campbell, Ternier-Thames, Wasco, & Sefl, 2007;  Borja, Callahan, & Long, 2006;  Orchowski, Meyer, & Gidycz, 2009; Bosch & Bergen, 2006; Edwards et al., 2012; Turell & Herrmann, 2008; Draucker et al., 2009; Artime & Buchholz, 2016; Borja et al., 2006; Edwards et al., 2012; Lempert, 1997; Mahlstedt & Keeny, 1993; Moe, 2007; Castellanos & Huyler, 2018; Holland & Cortina 2017; Castellanos & Huyler, 2018; Draucker et al., 2009).

Survivor-centered approaches must promote survivor well-being; these approaches must reduce the psychological and emotional costs of interacting with the informal (peer; family) and formal (institutional) response to sexual misconduct and should be readily available to survivors throughout the institutional system (e.g., confidential advisors).

Blaming survivors of harassment, assault, or violence and/or the lack of institutional support for survivors fails to address cultural and climate issues at the institutional level (Edwards et al., 2012; Lempert, 1997; Mahlstedt & Keeny, 1993; Moe, 2007; Castellanos & Huyler, 2018). As a result, all leadership, policies, and goals at the system level should adopt survivor-centered and trauma-informed approaches that support the needs of all survivors of assault, harassment, or violence. Survivor-centered approaches center and prioritize the safety, wellbeing, priorities, and needs of survivors who engage with our systems at all facets of the process given the immense emotional and psychological costs of assault (Allen, Bybee, & Sullivan, 2004; Allen, Larsen, Trotter, & Sullivan, 2013; Goodman & Epstein, 2008; Davies & Monti-Cantania, 1998). Some examples of what survivors may want for healing include, but are not limited to, access to medical care to get a physical checkup, STI testing, confidential advisers that help them navigate the process at the system-level, counseling services that allow survivors to process their experiences over a longer period of time, and other medical services (Gondolf & Fisher, 1988; Drauckeret al., 2009; Artime & Buchholz, 2016; Borjaet al., 2006).

Collaboration across relevant stakeholders may facilitate the instantiation of desired change in the institutional response to sexual misconduct.

There is some evidence that engaging in coordinated responses to sexual violence and domestic violence may result in increased instantiation of desired institutionalized change (i.e. changes in policy, procedure, and practice; Greeson & Campbell, 2015; Allen, 2006; Allen et al., 2012; Allen et al., 2013). On campus, collaborative approaches could include multiple campus units, community organizations like rape crisis centers, and other units on campus to ensure that all units are working together rather than in silos.

Intervention efforts should be informed by a social-ecological approach that is comprehensive and addresses multiple levels of intervention from individual to community levels.

Intervention efforts must be informed by ecological approaches that include attention to individual, relationship, organizational, community, and societal levels. Such a multilevel approach examines the role of institutions and individuals to prevent and respond to assault, harassment, discrimination, and interpersonal violence (CDC, 2016; Crossan & Apaydin, 2010; CDC, 2014).

Prevention education training should target social norms and be sufficiently long and intensive to shift beliefs, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors in groups.

Prevention efforts should focus on intervention and training that explicitly targets perceived group norms related to assault and set clear norms that assault is unacceptable. There should be longer trainings about sexual assault and interventions to increase the likelihood that beliefs, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors can shift for group members (Nation et al, 2003; Small, Cooney, & O’Conner 2009; Degue et al., 2014; CDC, 2016). Values of loyalty and betrayal can lead to reluctance to intervene in assault with highly cohesive groups, like sports teams and fraternities, when looking out for your “teammates” is a positively reinforced behavior (Murnen & Kohlman, 2007); when members of a fraternity or athletic group perceive group norms as unsupportive of misconduct, they are more likely to report intervening (Kroshus, 2019; Brown & Messman-Moore, 2010).

Further, trainings that incorporate active learning strategies (e.g., practicing new skills, role play, discussion, empathy training) are more effective (McMahon, Wood, Cusano & Macri, 2018; Sousa, 2016; Cialdini et al. 1997; Batson et al. 2007; Foubert & Newberry, 2006).  

When conducting intervention efforts in groups (which is common) paying attention to group composition is important (e.g., some interventions are more effective with single-gender compositions in certain contexts) (Jouriles, Krauss, Vu, Banyard, & McDonald, 2018; Storer, Casey, & Herrenkohl, 2016; Newlands & Donohue 2016; Vladutiu, Martin, & Macy, 2011; Jouriles, Krauss, Vu, Banyard, & McDonald, 2018; Storer, Casey, & Herrenkohl, 2016). Notably, there is relatively little information about the homogeneity or heterogeneity of groups with regard to race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, ability, etc. (McCauley et al., 2018; Crooks, Jaffe, Dunlop, Kerry, & Exner-Cortens, 2019; Banyard, 2014; Newlands & Donohue, 2016; Stone, 2018; Crooks, Jaffe, Dunlop, Kerry, & Exner-Cortens, 2019; Brown, Banyard, & Moynihan, 2014; Hoxmeier, Acock & Flay, 2017; Hoxmeier, O’Connor & McMahon, 2018). Thus, decisions about with whom to intervene should take into consideration the nature of the intervention, the facilitator(s) of the intervention, the target audience, and the unique context of the intervention.

Influential and trusted leaders (e.g., coaches; chapter leaders; team captains; supervisors) play an important role in shifting social norms and increasing bystander behavior.

When sports coaches clarify expectations and consequences of behavior off the field, players are more likely to intervene in what they perceive as inappropriate sexual behavior (Kroshus, Paskus & Bell, 2018); clearer expectations and consequences established from chapter leaders, sports coaches, and bosses can clarify group norms, and team captains can function in a similar way to help set group norms (Valente & Pumpuang, 2007; Campbell & Chinnery, 2018; McDonald, Charlesworth, & Graham, 2015; Fitzgerald et al., 1999). Thus, intervening with key leadership may be a powerful vehicle for shifting social and cultural norms. These approaches, which mobilize trusted leaders, may be particularly important with higher-risk groups and contexts (e.g., athletic teams; Greek life organizations) characterized by hypermasculine norms and the use of alcohol and drugs (Iwamoto et al., 2011; 2014).

Comprehensive, longer-term training is necessary to produce bystander behavior.

Short, one time training sessions are less effective at producing bystander behaviors (Vladutiu, Martin, & Macy, 2011; Jouriles, Krauss, Vu, Banyard, & McDonald, 2018; McMahon, Wood, Cusano & Macri, 2018; Storer, Casey, & Herrenkohl, 2016; Crooks, Jaffe, Dunlop, Kerry, & Exner-Cortens, 2019); booster sessions and follow-upon trainings are necessary for effective programs (Vladutiu, Martin, & Macy, 2011; Jouriles, Krauss, Vu, Banyard, & McDonald, 2018; McMahon, Wood, Cusano & Macri, 2018; Storer, Casey, & Herrenkohl, 2016; Crooks, Jaffe, Dunlop, Kerry, & Exner-Cortens, 2019).

Campus activities to address sexual misconduct should be coupled with evaluation efforts. This is especially true for traditionally underrepresented groups with whom there is more limited research base regarding effective programming.

Evaluation of programs requires the system-wide adoption and commitment to longitudinal research on the effectiveness of education program training and policies to prevent assault, harassment, discrimination, and interpersonal violence on all campuses; evaluation should include a commitment to understanding the experiences of underrepresented groups like individuals living with a disability, people of color, and other marginalized identities that are affected in the system writ large (McCauley et al., 2018; Crooks, Jaffe, Dunlop, Kerry, & Exner-Cortens, 2019; Brown, Banyard, & Moynihan, 2014; Hoxmeier, Acock & Flay, 2017; Hoxmeier, O’Connor & McMahon, 2018; Banyard, 2014; Newlands & Donohue, 2016). Therefore, all campuses at the system level should conduct research on best practices related to primary prevention using a social-ecological approach and barriers that prevent the healing and needs of survivors. Importantly, this work must serve the needs of all individuals—especially underrepresented populations.

References

A. Nelson, R. Lewy, F. Ricardo, T. Dovydaitis, A. Hunter, A.Mitchell. Eliciting behavior change in a US sexual violence and intimate partner violence prevention program through utilization of Freire and discussion facilitation. Health Promotion International, 25(3) (2010), pp. 299-308.

Abbey, A., & McAuslan, P. (2004). A longitudinal examination of male college students' perpetration of sexual assault. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology72(5), 747.

Ahrens, C. E., Campbell, R., Ternier-Thames, N. K., Wasco, S. M., Sefl, T. (2007). Deciding whom to tell: Expectations and outcomes of rape survivors first disclosures. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 38-49. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00329.x10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00329.x 

Aiman-Smith, L., & Green, S. G. (2002). Implementing new manufacturing technology: The related effects of technology characteristics and user learning activities. Academy of Management Journal45(2), 421-430.

Alaggia, R., Regehr, C., & Jenney, A. (2012). Risky business: An ecological analysis of intimate partner violence disclosure. Research on Social Work Practice22(3), 301-312.

Allen, N. E. (2006). An examination of the effectiveness of domestic violence coordinating councils. Violence against women12(1), 46-67.

Allen, N. E., Bybee, D. I., & Sullivan, C. M. (2004). Battered women’s multitude of needs: Evidence supporting the need for comprehensive advocacy. Violence against women10(9), 1015-1035.

Allen, N. E., Javdani, S., Lehrner, A. L., & Walden, A. L. (2012). “Changing the text”: Modeling council capacity to produce institutionalized change. American Journal of Community Psychology49(3-4), 317-331. 

Allen, N. E., Larsen, S. E., Javdani, S., & Lehrner, A. L. (2012). Council-based approaches to reforming the health care response to domestic violence: Promising findings and cautionary tales. American journal of community psychology50(1-2), 50-63.

Allen, N. E., Larsen, S., Trotter, J., & Sullivan, C. M. (2013). Exploring the core service delivery processes of an evidencebased community advocacy program for women with abusive partners. Journal of community psychology41(1), 1-18.

Allen, N. E., Lehrner, A., Mattison, E., Miles, T., & Russell, A. (2007). Promoting systems change in the health care response to domestic violence. Journal of Community Psychology35(1), 103-120.

Allen, N. E., Todd, N. R., Anderson, C. J., Davis, S. M., Javdani, S., Bruehler, V., & Dorsey, H. (2013). Council-based approaches to intimate partner violence: Evidence for distal change in the system response. American Journal of Community Psychology52(1-2), 1-12.

Anderson, L. A., & Whiston, S. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly29(4), 374-388.

Artime, T. M., & Buchholz, K. R. (2016). Treatment for sexual assault survivors at university counseling centers. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy30(4), 252-261.

Baer, M., & Frese, M. (2003). Innovation is not enough: Climates for initiative and psychological safety, process innovations, and firm performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior24(1), 45-68.

Baer, M., & Frese, M. (2003). Innovation is not enough: Climates for initiative and psychological safety, process innovations, and firm performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 24(1), 45-68.

Banyard, V. L. (2014). Improving college campus–based prevention of violence against women: A strategic plan for research built on multipronged practices and policies. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse15(4), 339-351.

Banyard, V. L. (2015). Building a Better Bystander. In Toward the Next Generation of Bystander Prevention of Sexual and Relationship Violence (pp. 77-109). Springer, Cham.

Basile, K.C., DeGue, S., Jones, K., Freire, K., Dills, J., Smith, S.G., Raiford, J.L. (2016). STOP SV: A Technical Package to Prevent Sexual Violence. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Batson, C. D., Sager, K., Garst, E., Kang, M., Rubchinsky, K., & Dawson, K. (1997). Is empathy-induced helping due to self–other merging?. Journal of personality and social psychology73(3), 495.

Borja, S. E., Callahan, J. L., & Long, P. J. (2006). Positive and negative adjustment and social support of sexual assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies19(6), 905-914.

Borja, S. E., Callahan, J. L., Long, P. (2006). Positive and negative adjustment and social support of sexual assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 905-914. doi:0.1002/jts.201690.1002/jts.20169 

Bosch, K., & Bergen, M. B. (2006). The influence of supportive and non- supportive persons in helping rural women in abusive partner relationships become free from abuse. Journal of Family Violence, 21, 311–320. doi:10.1007/s10896-006-9027-1

Boswell, A. A., & Spade, J. Z. (1996). Fraternities and collegiate rape culture: Why are some fraternities more dangerous places for women? Gender & Society, 10(2), 133-147.

Brecklin, L. R., & Forde, D. R. (2001). A meta-analysis of rape education programs. Violence and victims16(3), 303.

Brown, A. L., & Messman-Moore, T. L. (2010). Personal and Perceived Peer Attitudes Supporting Sexual Aggression as Predictors of Male College Students’ Willingness to Intervene Against Sexual Aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(3), 503–517. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509334400

Brown, A. L., Banyard, V. L., & Moynihan, M. M. (2014). College students as helpful bystanders against sexual violence: Gender, race, and year in college moderate the impact of perceived peer norms. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(3), 350-362.

Burns, V. L., Eaton, A. A., Long, H., & Zapp, D. (2018). Exploring the Role of Race and Gender on Perceived Bystander Ability and Intent: Findings Before and After Exposure to an Online Training Program to Prevent Sexual Assault on Campus. Violence Against Womenhttps://doi.org/10.1177/1077801218807089

Campbell, H., & Chinnery, S. (2018). What Works? Preventing & Responding to Sexual Harassment in the Workplace.

Campbell, R., Patterson, D., & Lichty, L. F. (2005). The Effectiveness of Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner (SANE) Programs: A Review of Psychological, Medical, Legal, and Community Outcomes. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 6(4), 313–329.

Capraro, R. L. (2000). Why college men drink: Alcohol, adventure, and the paradox of masculinity. Journal of American College Health, 48(6), 307-315. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07448480009596272

Castellanos, J., & Huyler, D. (2018). Sexual Assault in Higher Education. Adult Higher Education Alliance.

Catalano, S. M. (2006). Criminal victimization, 2005 (NCJ 214644). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. 

CDC (2014). Dahlberg LL, Krug EG. Violence-a global public health problem. In: Krug E, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA, Zwi AB, Lozano R, eds. World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2002:1–56.

CDC. (2016). Sexual violence on Campus: Strategies for prevention.

CDC. (2016). Stop SV: A technical package to prevent sexual violence. Division of Violence

CDC (2014). Preventing sexual violence on college campuses: Lessons from research and practice. Retrieved from https://www.notalone.gov/schools/.

Chamberlain, L., Crowley, M., Tope, D. and Hodson, R. (2008). Sexual harassment in organizational context. Work and Occupations, 35, pp. 262-295.

Cialdini, R. B., Brown, S. L., Lewis, B. P., Luce, C., & Neuberg, S. L. (1997). Reinterpreting the empathy–altruism relationship: When one into one equals oneness. Journal of personality and social psychology73(3), 481.

Conley, A. H., & Griffith, C. (2016). TraumaInformed Response in the Age of Title IX: Considerations for College Counselors Working With Survivors of PowerBased Personal Violence. Journal of College Counseling19(3), 276-288.

Correll, S. J., Benard, S., & Paik, I. (2007). Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty?. American journal of sociology, 112(5), 1297-1338.

Crooks, C. V., Jaffe, P., Dunlop, C., Kerry, A., & Exner-Cortens, D. (2019). Preventing Gender-Based Violence Among Adolescents and Young Adults: Lessons From 25 Years of Program Development and Evaluation. Violence Against Women, 25(1), 29–55.

Crossan, M. M., & Apaydin, M. (2010). A multidimensional framework of organizational innovation: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of management studies47(6), 1154-1191.

Davies, J., Lyon, E., & Monti-Catania, D. (1998). Safety planning with battered women: Complex lives/difficult choices (Vol. 7). Sage.

Debra Patterson, Megan Greeson, Rebecca Campbell, Understanding Rape Survivors' Decisions Not to Seek Help from Formal Social Systems, Health & Social Work, Volume 34, Issue 2, May 2009, Pages 127–136, https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/34.2.127

Degue et al. (2014). A systematic review of primary prevention strategies for sexual violence perpetration. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(4), 346-362.

DeGue, S., Valle, L. A., Holt, M. K., Massetti, G. M., Matjasko, J. L., & Tharp, A. T. (2014). A systematic review of primary prevention strategies for sexual violence perpetration. Aggression and violent behavior19(4), 346-362.

DeKeseredy, W, Kelly, K. (1995). Sexual abuse in Canadian university and college dating relationships: The contribution of male peer support. Journal of Family Violence, 10, 41–53. doi:10.1080/1092677090329177910.1080/10926770903291779 

Draucker, C. B., Martsolf, D. S., & Poole, C. (2009). Developing distress protocols for research on sensitive topics. Archives of psychiatric nursing23(5), 343-350.

Draucker, C. B., Martsolf, D. S., Ross, R. , Cook, C. B., Stidham, A. W. and Mweemba, P. (2009), The essence of healing from sexual violence: A qualitative metasynthesis. Res. Nurs. Health, 32: 366-378. doi:10.1002/nur.20333

Edmondson, A. C., Bohmer, R. M., & Pisano, G. P. (2001). Disrupted routines: Team learning and new technology implementation in hospitals. Administrative Science Quarterly46(4), 685-716.

Edwards, K., Dardis, C., Gidycz, C. A. (2012). Women's disclosure of dating violence: A mixed methodological study. Feminism & Psychology, 22, 507–517. doi:10.1177/0959353511422280

Elias-Lambert, N., & Black, B. M. (2016). Bystander Sexual Violence Prevention Program: Outcomes for High- and Low-Risk University Men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 31(19), 3211–3235. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515584346

Exner-Cortens, D., & Cummings, N. (2017). Bystander-Based Sexual Violence Prevention With College Athletes: A Pilot Randomized Trial. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517733279

Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., Turner, M. G. (2000). The sexual victimization of college women. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

Fisher, B. S., Daigle, L. E., Cullen, F. T., Turner, M. G. (2003). Reporting sexual victimization to the police and others: Results from a national-level study of college women. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30, 6-38. doi:10.1177/009385480223916110.1177/0093854802239161 

Fitzgerald, L. F., Drasgow, F., & Magley, V. J. (1999). Sexual harassment in the armed forces: A test of an integrated model. Military Psychology11(3), 329-343.

Fitzgerald, L. F., Magley, V. J., Drasgow, F., & Waldo, C. R. (1999). Measuring sexual harassment in the military: the sexual experiences questionnaire (SEQ—DoD). Military Psychology11(3), 243-263.

Fitzgerald, L., Drasgow, F., Hulin, C., Gelfand, M. and Magley, V. (1997a). Antecedents and consequences of sexual harassment in organizations: a test of an integrated model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, pp. 578-589.

Fitzgerald, L., Swan, S. and Fischer, K. (1995). Why didn't she just report him? The psychological and legal implications of women's responses to sexual harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 51, pp. 117-138.

Flores, S. A., & Hartlaub, M. G. (1998). Reducing rape-myth acceptance in male college students: A meta-analysis of intervention studies. Journal of College Student Development39, 438-448.

Forbes, G. B., Adams-Curtis, L. E., Pakalka, A. H., & White, K. B. (2006). Dating aggression, sexual coercion, and aggression-supporting attitudes among college men as a function of participation in aggressive high school sports. Violence against women12(5), 441-455.

Foster, P. J., & Fullagar, C. J. (2018). Why don’t we report sexual harassment? An application of the theory of planned behavior. Basic and Applied Social Psychology40(3), 148-160.

Foubert, J., & Newberry, J. T. (2006). Effects of two versions of an empathy-based rape prevention program on fraternity men's survivor empathy, attitudes, and behavioral intent to commit rape or sexual assault. Journal of College Student Development47(2), 133-148.

Franklin, C. A., Bouffard, L. A., & Pratt, T. C. (2012). Sexual Assault on the College Campus: Fraternity Affiliation, Male Peer Support, and Low Self-Control. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 39(11), 1457–1480. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854812456527

Gaddis, S. M. (2014). Discrimination in the credential society: An audit study of race and college selectivity in the labor market. Social Forces, 93(4), 1451-1479.

García Johnson, C. P., & Otto, K. (2019). Better Together: A Model for Women and LGBTQ Equality in the Workplace. Frontiers in psychology10, 272.

Gidycz, C. A., Orchowski, L. M., Probst, D. R., Edwards, K. M., Murphy, M., & Tansill, E. (2015). Concurrent administration of sexual assault prevention and risk reduction programming: Outcomes for women. Violence against women21(6), 780-800.

Glasman, L. R., & Albarracin, D. (2006). Forming attitudes that predict future behavior: A meta-analysis of the attitude-behavior relation. Psychological bulletin132(5), 778.

Godenzi, A., Schwartz, M.D. & Dekeseredy, W.S. Critical Criminology (2001) 10: 1. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013105118592

Gondolf, E. (2010). The Contributions of Ellen Pence to Batterer Programming. Violence Against Women, 16(9), 992-1006.

Gondolf, E. W., & Fisher, E. R. (1988). Battered women as survivors: An alternative to treating learned helplessness. Lexington Books/DC Heath and Com.

Goodman, L. A., & Epstein, D. (2008). Listening to battered women: A survivor-centered approach to advocacy, mental health, and justice. American Psychological Association.

Gould, D., Collins, K., Lauer, L., & Chung, Y. (2007). Coaching life skills through football: A study of award winning high school coaches. Journal of Applied Sport.

Greeson, M. R., & Campbell, R. (2015). Coordinated community efforts to respond to sexual assault: A national study of sexual assault response team implementation. Journal of interpersonal violence30(14), 2470-2487.

Hennekam, S., & Bennett, D. (2017). Sexual harassment in the creative industries: Tolerance, culture and the need for change. Gender, Work & Organization24(4), 417-434.

Holahan PJ, Aronson ZH, Jurkat MP, Schoorman FD: Implementing computer technology: a multiorganizational test of Klein and Sorra's model. Journal of Engineering and Technology Management. 2004, 21: 31-50. 10.1016/j.jengtecman.2003.12.003.

Holland, K. J., & Cortina, L. M. (2017). The evolving landscape of Title IX: Predicting mandatory reporters’ responses to sexual assault disclosuresLaw and Human Behavior, 41(5), 429-439.

Hoxmeier, J. C., Acock, A. C., & Flay, B. R. (2017). Students as Prosocial Bystanders to Sexual Assault: Demographic Correlates of Intervention Norms, Intentions, and Missed Opportunities. Journal of Interpersonal Violencehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517689888

Hoxmeier, J. C., O’Connor, J., & McMahon, S. (2018). Undergraduate Students as Bystanders to Sexual Violence Risks: Differences in Reported Intervention Opportunities and Behaviors by Racial Identity. Journal of Interpersonal Violencehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518790593

Humphrey, S. E., & Kahn, A. S. (2000). Fraternities, Athletic Teams, and Rape: Importance of Identification With a Risky Group. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15(12), 1313–1322. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626000015012005

Iwamoto, D. K., Cheng, A., Lee, C. S., Takamatsu, S., & Gordon, D. (2011). "Man-ing" up and getting drunk: the role of masculine norms, alcohol intoxication and alcohol-related problems among college men. Addictive behaviors36(9), 906–911. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.04.005

Iwamoto, D. K., Corbin, W., Lejuez, C., & MacPherson, L. (2014). College men and alcohol use: Positive alcohol expectancies as a mediator between distinct masculine norms and alcohol use. Psychology of men & masculinity15(1), 29.

Jouriles, E. N., Krauss, A., Vu, N. L., Banyard, V. L., & McDonald, R. (2018). Bystander programs addressing sexual violence on college campuses: A systematic review and meta-analysis of program outcomes and delivery methods. Journal of American college health66(6), 457-466.

Katz, J. (2018). Bystander Training as Leadership Training: Notes on the origins, philosophy and pedagogy of the mentors in violence prevention model. Violence Against Women, 24(15), 1755-1776.

Kettrey, H.H. & Marx, R.A. J Youth Adolescence (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0927-1

Klein, K. J., & Knight, A. P. (2005). Innovation implementation: Overcoming the challenge. Current directions in psychological science14(5), 243-246.

Klein, K. J., & Sorra, J. S. (1996). The challenge of innovation implementation. Academy of management review21(4), 1055-1080.

Klein, K., & Knight, A. (2005). Innovation Implementation: Overcoming the Challenge. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(5), 243-246. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/stable/20183036

Kraus, S. J. (1995). Attitudes and the prediction of behavior: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Personality and social psychology bulletin21(1), 58-75.

Kroshus, E. (2019; Advanced Online Publication). College Athletes, Pluralistic Ignorance and Bystander Behaviors to Prevent Sexual Assault. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology. 1-28. 10.1123/jcsp.2018-0039.

Kroshus, E., Paskus, T., & Bell, L. (2018). Coach Expectations About Off-Field Conduct and Bystander Intervention by U.S. College Football Players to Prevent Inappropriate Sexual Behavior. Journal of Interpersonal Violence33(2), 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515605122

Kuhl et al. (2018). Masculinity, Organizational Culture, Media Framing and Sexual Violence in the Military.

Ledray, L. E. (2015). Recovering From Rape: Practical Advice on Overcoming the Trauma and Coping with Police, Hospitals, and the Courts-for the Survivors of Sexual Assault and their Families, Lovers and Friends. Holt Paperbacks.

Lempert, L. B. (1997). The other side of help: Negative effects in the help-seeking processes of abused women. Qualitative Sociology20(2), 289-309.

Mahlstedt, D., & Keeny, L. (1993). Female survivors of dating violence and their social networks. Feminism & Psychology3(3), 319-333.

Mary M. Moynihan PhD , Victoria L. Banyard PhD , Julie S. Arnold BA , Robert P. Eckstein MS & Jane G. Stapleton MA (2010) Engaging Intercollegiate Athletes in Preventing and Intervening in Sexual and Intimate Partner Violence, Journal of American College Health, 59:3, 197-204, DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2010.502195

McCALL, G. J. (1993). Risk factors and sexual assault prevention. Journal of Interpersonal Violence8(2), 277-295.

McCann, Carly and Tomaskovic-Devey, Donald and Lee Badgett, M. V., Employers' Responses to Sexual Harassment (December 1, 2018). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3407960 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3407960

McCauley et al. (2018). Chapter 14 – Sexual assault risk and prevention among sexual and gender minority populations. In Sexual assault risk reduction and resistance: Theory, research, and practice.

McDonald, P. (2012). Workplace sexual harassment 30 years on: A review of the literature. International Journal of Management Reviews14(1), 1-17.

McDonald, P., Charlesworth, S., & Graham, T. (2015). Developing a framework of effective prevention and response strategies in workplace sexual harassment. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources53(1), 41-58.

McMahon, S., Wood, L., Cusano, J., & Macri, L. M. (2019). Campus sexual assault: Future directions for research. Sexual Abuse31(3), 270-295.

Mihalic, S., Irwin, K., Fagan, A., Ballard, D., & Elliott, D. (2004). Successful program implementation: Lessons from blueprints. Juvenile Justice Bulletin2004(July), 1-12.

Moe, A. M. (2007). Silenced voices and structured survival: Battered women's help seeking. Violence against women13(7), 676-699.

Murnen, S. K., & Kohlman, M. H. (2007). Athletic participation, fraternity membership, and sexual aggression among college men: A meta-analytic review. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 57(1-2), 145-157.

Nation, M., Crusto, C., Wandersman, A., Kumpfer, K. L., Seybolt, D., Morrissey-Kane, E., & Davino, K. (2003). What works in prevention: Principles of effective prevention programs. American psychologist58(6-7), 449.

Neuberg, S. L., Cialdini, R. B., Brown, S. L., Luce, C., Sagarin, B. J., & Lewis, B. P. (1997). Does empathy lead to anything more than superficial helping? Comment on Batson et al.(1997).

Newlands R, Donohue WO. A Critical Review of Sexual Violence Prevention on College Campuses. Acta Psychopathol. 2016, 2:14. doi: 10.4172/2469-6676.100040

Newlands, R., & O’Donohue, W. (2016). A critical review of sexual violence prevention on college campuses. Acta Psychopathologica2(2), 14.

Nord, W. R., & Tucker, S. (1987). Implementing routine and radical innovations. Free Press.

Nutt, P. C. (1986). Tactics of implementation. Academy of Management Journal29(2), 230-261.

Orchowski et al. (2018). A framework for evaluating sexual assault risk reduction and empowerment self-defense programs. In Sexual assault risk reduction and resistance: Theory, research, and practice.

Orchowski, L. M., Meyer, D. H., Gidycz, C. A. (2009). College women’s likelihood to report unwanted sexual victimization to campus agencies: Trends and correlates. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 18, 839-858.

Ortiz, R. R., & Shafer, A. (2018). Unblurring the lines of sexual consent with a college student-driven sexual consent education campaign. Journal of American College Health, (just-accepted), 00-00.

Pager, D. (2003). The mark of a criminal record. American journal of sociology108(5), 937-975.

Pager, D. (2007). The use of field experiments for studies of employment discrimination: Contributions, critiques, and directions for the future. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science609(1), 104-133.

Pedulla, D. S. (2018). Emerging frontiers in audit study research: mechanisms, variation, and representativeness. In Audit Studies: Behind the Scenes with Theory, Method, and Nuance (pp. 179-195). Springer, Cham.

Peterson, K., Sharps, P., Banyard, V., Powers, R. A., Kaukinen, C., Gross, D., ... & Campbell, J. (2016). An evaluation of two dating violence prevention programs on a college campus. Journal of interpersonal violence Prevevention, 0886260516636069.

Pfeffer, J., & Sutton, R. I. (2000). The knowing-doing gap: How smart companies turn knowledge into action. Harvard Business Press.

Prochaska, J.O. and DiClemente, C.C. (1984).  The transtheoretical approach:  Crossing the traditional boundaries of therapy.  Melbourne, Florida:  Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN: 13: 978-0894648489.

Rabelo, V. C., Holland, K. J., & Cortina, L. M. (2019). From distrust to distress: Associations among military sexual assault, organizational trust, and occupational healthPsychology of Violence, 9(1), 78-87.

Repenning, N. P. (2002). A simulation-based approach to understanding the dynamics of innovation implementation. Organization science13(2), 109-127.

Repenning, N. P., & Sterman, J. D. (2002). Capability traps and self-confirming attribution errors in the dynamics of process improvement. Administrative Science Quarterly47(2), 265-295.

Robbins, A. (2019). Fraternity: An inside look at a year of college boys becoming men. NY, NY: Dutton. Roles, 57, 145-157.

Roscigno, V. J. (2019). Discrimination, Sexual Harassment, and the Impact of Workplace Power. Socius5, 2378023119853894.

Rudman, L. A., Borgida, E., & Robertson, B. A. (1995). Suffering in silence: Procedural justice versus gender socialization issues in university sexual harassment grievance procedures. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17(4), 519-541.

Scott-Sheldon, L. A., Carey, K. B., Elliott, J. C., Garey, L., & Carey, M. P. (2014). Efficacy of alcohol interventions for first-year college students: a meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology82(2), 177–188. doi:10.1037/a0035192

Senn, C., Hollander, J., & Gidycz, C. (2018). Chapter 11 - What works? Critical components of effective sexual violence interventions for women on college and university campuses. In Sexual assault risk reduction and resistance: Theory, research, and practice.

Small, S. A., Cooney, S. M., & O’connor, C. (2009). Evidenceinformed program improvement: using principles of effectiveness to enhance the quality and impact of familybased prevention programs. Family Relations58(1), 1-13.

Small, S. A., Cooney, S. M., & O’connor, C. (2009). Evidenceinformed program improvement: using principles of effectiveness to enhance the quality and impact of familybased prevention programs. Family Relations58(1), 1-13.

Sousa, D. A. (2016). How the brain learns. Corwin Press.

Stephens, K. A. (2008). Rape prevention with Asian/Pacific Islander and Caucasian college men: The roles of culture and risk status. University of Washington.

Stone, M. (2018). Chapter 15 - preventing sexual violence against people with disabilities: Empowerment self-defense, risk reduction education, and organizational change. In Sexual assault risk reduction and resistance: Theory, research, and practice.

Storer, H. L., Casey, E., & Herrenkohl, T. (2016). Efficacy of Bystander Programs to Prevent Dating Abuse Among Youth and Young Adults: A Review of the Literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17(3), 256–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015584361

Sylaska, K. M., & Edwards, K. M. (2014). Disclosure of Intimate Partner Violence to Informal Social Support Network Members: A Review of the Literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15(1), 3–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838013496335

Teten Tharp, A. L., DeGue, S., Lang, K., Valle, L.A., Massetti, G., Holt, M., Matjasko, J. (2011). Commentary on Foubert, Godin, & Tatum (2010): The evolution of sexual violence prevention and the urgency for effectiveness. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 110. 

Tharp et al. (2012). A systematic qualitative review of risk and protective factors for sexual violence perpetration. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 14(2), 133-167.

Tharp, A. T., DeGue, S., Lang, K., Valle, L. A., Massetti, G., Holt, M., & Matjasko, J. (2011). Commentary on foubert, godin, & tatum (2010) the evolution of sexual violence prevention and the urgency for effectiveness. Journal of interpersonal violence, 26(16), 3383-3392.

Turell, S. C., Herrmann, M. M. (2008). “Family” support for family violence: Exploring community support systems for lesbian and bisexual women who have experiences abuse. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 12, 211–224. doi:10.1080/10894160802161372

Vaccaro, I. G., Jansen, J. J., Van Den Bosch, F. A., & Volberda, H. W. (2012). Management innovation and leadership: The moderating role of organizational size. Journal of Management Studies49(1), 28-51.

Valente, T. W., & Pumpuang, P. (2007). Identifying opinion leaders to promote behavior change. Health Education & Behavior34(6), 881-896.

Vladutiu, C. J., Martin, S. L., & Macy, R. J. (2011). College-or university-based sexual assault prevention programs: A review of program outcomes, characteristics, and recommendations. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse12(2), 67-86.

Voth Schrag, R. J., & Edmond, T. E. (2018). Intimate partner violence, trauma, and mental health need among female community college students. Journal of American college health66(7), 702-711.

Weiner, B. J., Belden, C. M., Bergmire, D. M., & Johnston, M. (2011). The meaning and measurement of implementation climate. Implementation Science, 6(1), 78.

Weisz, A. N., & Black, B. M. (2001). Evaluating a sexual assault and dating violence prevention program for urban youths. Social Work Research25(2), 89-100.

Welsh, S. (1999). Gender and sexual harassment. Annual Review of Sociology, 25, pp. 169-190.

Wright, L. A., O., N. O., & Whiston, S. C. (2018). The Effectiveness of Male-Targeted Sexual Assault Prevention Programs: A Meta-Analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse.

Yavorsky, J. E. (2019). Uneven Patterns of Inequality: An Audit Analysis of Hiring-Related Practices by Gendered and Classed Contexts. Social Forces.